Man is Composed of Spirit and Body
Man is Composed of Spirit and Body
Those
who are acquainted to a certain extent with the Islamic sciences know
that within the teachings of the Holy Book and the traditions of the
Prophet there are many references to spirit and corpus, or soul and
body.
Although it is relatively easy to conceive of the body and what
is corporeal, or that which can be known through the senses, to
conceive of spirit and soul is difficult and complicated.
People
given to intellectual discussions, such as the theologians and
philosophers, Shi'ite and Sunni alike, have presented different views
concerning the reality of the spirit(ruh). Yet, what is to some extent
certain is that Islam considers spirit and body to be two realities
opposed to each other.
The body through death loses the characteristics
of life and gradually disintegrates, but it is not so with the spirit.
When the spirit is joined to the body, the body also derives life from
it, and when the spirit separates from the body and cuts its bond to
the body - the event that is called death - the body ceases to function
while the spirit continues to live.
From what can be learned
through deliberation upon the verses of the Holy Qur'an and the sayings
of the Imams of the Household of the Prophet, the spirit of man is
something immaterial which has some kind of relation and connection
with the material body.
God the Almighty in His Book says, "Verily We
created man from a product of wet earth ; Then placed him as a drop (of
seed) in a safe lodging ; Then fashioned We the drop a clot, then
fashioned We the clot a little lump, then fashioned We the little lump
bones, Then clothed the bones with flesh, and then produced it as
another creation" (Qur'an, XXIII, 12-14).
From the order of these
verses it is clear that at the beginning the gradual creation of matter
is described and then, when reference is made to the appearance of the
spirit, consciousness, and will, another kind of creation is mentioned
which is different from the previous form of creation.
In another
place it is said, in answer to skeptics who ask how it is possible for
the body of man, which after death becomes disintegrated and whose
elements become dispersed and lost, to have a new creation and become
the original man, "Say: The angel of death, who hath charge concerning
you, will gather you, and afterwards unto your Lord ye will be
returned" (Qur'an, XXXII, 11).
This means that your bodies disintegrate
after death and are lost amidst the particles of the earth, but you
yourselves, namely your spirits, have been taken from your bodies by
the angel of death and remain protected with Us.
Besides such
verses the Holy Qur'an in a comprehensive explanation expresses the
immateriality of the spirit in itself when it asserts, "They will ask
thee concerning the Spirit. Say: The Spirit is by command of my Lord"
(Qur'an, XVII, 85).
In another place in explaining His command(amr)
He says, "But His command, when He intendeth a thing, is only that He
saith unto it: Be! And it is.
Therefore glory be to Him in Whose hand
is the dominion over all things!" (Qur'an, XXXVI, 81-82). The meaning
of these verses is that the command of God in the creation of things is
not gradual nor is it bound to the conditions of time and space.
Therefore, the spirit which has no reality other than the command of God is not material and in its being does not have material characteristics; that is, it does not have the characteristics of divisibility, change, and situation in time and space.
A Discussion of Spirit from another Perspective
Intellectual
investigation confirms the view of the Holy Qur'an about the spirit.
Each of us is aware of a reality within himself which he interprets as
"I" and this awareness exists continuously within man. Sometimes man
even forgets his head, hands, feet and other members or the whole body.
But as long as his self exists, the consciousness of "I" does not leave
his awareness. This perception cannot be divided or analyzed. Although
the body of man is continuously undergoing change and transformation
and chooses different locations in space for itself and passes through
different moments of time, the reality of "I" remains fixed. It does
not undergo any change or transformation.
It is clear that if the "I"
were material it would accept the characteristics of matter which are
divisibility, change, and situation in time and space.
The body
accepts all the characteristics of matter and, because of the relation
of the spirit and the body, these characteristics are also considered
to belong to the spirit.
But if we pay the least attention, it becomes
evident to man that this moment in time and the next, this point in
space or another, this shape or another shape, this direction of motion
or any other, are all characteristics of the body.
The spirit is free
from them; rather each of these determinations reaches the spirit
through the body. This same reasoning can be applied in reverse to the
power of consciousness and apprehension or knowledge which is one of
the characteristics of the spirit.
Obviously if knowledge were a
material quality, according to the conditions of matter it would accept
divisibility and analysis, and be determined by time and space.
Needless to say, this intellectual discussion could go on at length and
there are many questions and answers related to it which cannot be
considered in the present context.
The brief discussion presented here is only an indication of the Islamic belief concerning body and spirit. A complete discussion will be found in works of Islamic philosophy.
Death from the Islamic Point of View
Although
a superficial view would regard death as the annihilation of man and
see human life as consisting of only the few days that stand between
birth and death, Islam interprets death as the transfer of man from one
stage of life to another.
According to Islam man possesses eternal life
which knows no end. Death, which is the separation of the spirit from
the body, introduces man to another stage of life in which felicity or
disappointment depends upon good or evil deeds in the stage of life
before death.
The Holy Prophet has said: "You have been created for subsistence, not annihilation. What happens is that you will be transferred from one house to another."
Purgatory
From
what can be deduced from the Holy Book and prophetic traditions, it can
be concluded that between death and general resurrection man possesses
a limited and temporary life which is the intermediate stage (barzakh)
and link between the life of this world and eternal life.
After death
man is interrogated concerning the beliefs he has held and the good and
evil deeds he has performed in this life. After a summary account and
judgment he is subjected to either a pleasant and felicitous life, or
an unpleasant and wretched one, depending on the results of the account
and judgment. With this newly acquired life he continues in expectation
until the day of general resurrection.
The condition of man in the life
of the intermediate state (purgatory) is very similar to the condition
of a person who has been called before a judicial organization in order
to have the acts he has committed investigated. He is questioned and
investigated until his file is completed.
Then he awaits trial.
The
soul of man in the intermediate state possesses the same form as in his
life in this world. If he be a man of virtue, he lives in happiness and
bounty in the proximity of those who are pure and close to the Divine
Presence.
If he be a man of evil, he lives in affliction and pain and
in the company of daemonic forces and "leaders of those who have gone
astray."
God, the Most Exalted, has said concerning the condition
of a group of those in the state of felicity, "Think not of those who
are slain in the way of Allah, as dead. Nay, they are living. With
their Lord they have provision.
Jubilant (are they) because of that
which Allah hath bestowed upon them of His bounty, rejoicing for the
sake of those who have not joined them but are left behind: that there
shall no fear come upon them neither shall they grieve.
They rejoice
because of favor from Allah and kindness, and that Allah wasteth not
the wage of the believers" (Qur'an, III, 169-171).
And in describing the condition of another group who in the life of this world do not make legitimate use of their wealth and possessions, He says, "Until, when death cometh unto one of the, he saith: My Lord! Send me back, that I may do right in that which I have left behind! But nay! It is but a word that he speaketh; and behind them is a barrier [barzakh] until the day when they are raised" (Qur'an, XXIII, 99-100).
The Day of Judgment - Resurrection
Among
sacred texts the Qur'an is the only one to have spoken in detail about
the Day of Judgment.
Although the Torah has not mentioned this Day and
the Gospels have only alluded to it, the Qur'an has mentioned the Day
of Judgment in hundreds of places, using different names. It has
described the fate awaiting mankind on this Day sometimes briefly and
on other occasions in detail.
It has reminded mankind many times that
faith in the Day of Recompense (Day of Judgment) is on the same scale
in its importance as faith in God and is one of the three principles of
Islam. It has mentioned that he who lacks this faith, that is, who
denies resurrection, is outside the pale of Islam and has no destiny
other than eternal perdition.
And this is the truth of the matter
because if there were to be no reckoning in God's actions and no reward
or punishment, the religious message, which consists of an assemblage
of God's decrees and what He has commanded and forbidden, would not
have the least effect.
Thus the existence or nonexistence of prophecy
and the religious mission would be the same. In fact, its nonexistence
would be preferable to its existence, for to accept a religion and
follow the regulations of a Divine Law is not possible without the
acceptance of restrictions and loss of what appears as "freedom."
If to
submit to it were to have no effect, people would never accept it and
would not give up their natural freedom of action for it. From this
argument it becomes clear that the importance of mentioning and
recalling the Day of Judgment is equivalent to that of the principle of
the religious call itself.
From this conclusion it also becomes
evident that faith in the Day of Recompense is the most effective
factor which induces man to accept the necessity of virtue and
abstention from unbecoming qualities and great sins, in the same way
that to forget or lack faith in the Day of Judgment is the essential
root of every evil act and sin.
God the Almighty has said in His Book,
"Lo! Those who wander from the way of Allah have an awful doom, for as
much as they forgot the Day of Reckoning" (Qur'an, XXXVIII, 27).
As can
be seen in this sacred verse, the forgetting of the Day of Judgment is
considered to be the root of every deviation.
Meditation on the purpose
of the creation of man and the Universe, or on the purpose and end of
Divine Laws makes it evident that there will be a Day of Judgment.
When we meditate on creation, we see that there is no action (which of
necessity is also a kind of motion) without an immutable end and
purpose. Never is the action, considered independently and in itself,
the end. Rather, action is always the prelude to an end and exists by
virtue of that end.
Even in actions which superficially appear to be
without purpose such as instinctive actions or will discover purposes
in conformity with the kind of action in question. In instinctive
actions, which are usually a form of motion, the end toward which the
motion takes place is the purpose and aim of the action.
And in the
play of children there is an imaginary end, the attainment of which is
the purpose of playing. The creation of man and the world is the action
of God and God is above the possibility of performing a senseless and
purposeless act such as creating, nourishing, taking away life and then
again creating, nourishing, and taking away life, that is, of making
and destroying, without there being an immutable end and a permanent
purpose which He pursues in these acts.
There must of necessity be a
permanent aim and purpose in the creation of the world and of man. Of
course, its benefit does not accrue to God, who is above every need,
but rather to the creatures themselves. Thus it must be said that the
world and man are directed toward a permanent reality and a more
perfect state of being which knows no annihilation and corruption.
Also, when we study with care the condition of men from the point of
view of religious education and training, we see that as a result of
Divine guidance and religious training people become divided into the
two categories of the virtuous and the evil. Yet in this life there is
no distinction made between them.
Rather, on the contrary, success
usually belongs to those who are evil and unjust. To do well is
combined with difficulty and hardship and every kind of privation and
endurance of oppression.
Since this is so, Divine Justice requires the
existence of another world in which each individual receives the just
reward ho actions deserve, and lives a life in conformity with his
merits.
Thus it is seen that careful consideration of the purpose
of creation and of the Divine Laws leads to the conclusion that the Day
of Judgment will come for every person. God, the Exalted, makes this
clear in His Book, saying, "And We created not the heavens and the
earth, and all that is between them, in play.
We created them not save
with truth; but most of them in vain. That is the opinion of those who
disbelieve. And woe unto those who disbelieve, from the fire! Shall We
treat those who believe and do good works as those who spread
corruption in the earth; or shall We treat the pious as the wicked?"
(Qur'an, XXXVIII, 28-29).
In another place He says, "Or do those who
commit ill-deeds suppose that We shall make them as those who believe
and do good works, the same in life and death? Bad is their judgment!
And Allah hath created the heavens and the earth with truth, and that
every soul may be repaid what it hath earned.
And they will not be wronged" (Qur'an, XLV, 21-22).
Another Explanation
In
discussing the outward and inward meaning of the Qur'an we pointed out
that the Islamic sciences are explained in the Qur'an through different
means and that these are in general divided into the two dimensions of
the exoteric and the esoteric.
The exoteric explanation is the one that
conforms to the level of the simple thought patterns and understanding
of the majority, in contrast to the esoteric, which belongs to the
elite alone which can be comprehended only with the aid of the vision
which comes through the practices of the spiritual life.
The
explanation from the exoteric view presents God as the absolute ruler
of the world of creation, all of which is His dominion. God has created
many angels, whose number is legion, to carry out and execute the
commands He issues for every aspect of creation. Each part of creation
and its order is connected to a special group of angels who are the
protectors of that domain.
The human species is His creation and human
beings are His servants who must obey His commands and prohibitions;
and the prophets are the bearers of His messages, the conveyors of the
laws and regulations which He has sent to mankind and has demanded that
mankind obey.
God has promised reward and recompense for faith and
obedience, and punishment and painful retribution for infidelity and
sin, and will not break His promise.
Also since He is just, His justice
demands that in another state of being the two groups of virtuous and
evil men, who in this world do not have a mode of life in accordance
with their good and evil nature, becomes separated, the virtuous to
possess a good and happy life and the evil a bad and wretched existence.
Thus God, according to His Justice and the promises He has made, will
resurrect all men who live in this world after their death, without
exception, and will investigate in detail their beliefs and works. He
will judge them according to the truth and give everyone who has a
right his due.
He will carry out justice on behalf of all who have been
oppressed. He will render to each person the reward for his own
actions. One group will be assigned to eternal heaven and the other
group to eternal hell.
This is the exoteric explanation of the Holy
Qur'an. Of course it is true and correct. But its language is composed
of terms and images born of man's social life and thought in order that
its benefit might be more general and the radius of its action more
widespread.
Those who have penetrated into the spiritual meaning of
things and are to a certain extent familiar with the esoteric language
of the Holy Qur'an, however, understand from these sayings meanings
which lie above the level of simple and popular comprehension.
The Holy
Qur'an, amidst its simple and uncomplicated expositions, occasionally
alludes to the esoteric aim and purpose of its message.
Through many
allusions the Holy Qur'an affirms that the world of creation with all
its parts, of which man is one, is moving in its "existential becoming"
which is always in the direction of perfection toward God.
A day will come when this movement will come to an end and will lose completely its separate and independent existence before the Divine Majesty and Grandeur.
Man, who is a part of the world and whose special
perfection is through consciousness and knowledge, is also moving with
haste toward God.
When he reaches the end of this becoming, he will
observe plainly the Truth and Oneness of the Unique God. He will see
that power, dominion and every other quality of perfection belong
exclusively to the sacred Divine Essence; the reality of each thingas
it is will be revealed to him.
This is the first stage in the world of
eternity. If, through his faith and good works in this world, man is
able to have communication, relation, familiarity, and friendship with
God and the beings of his proximity, then with a felicity and joy that
can never be described in human language he will live near God and in
the company of the pure beings of the world above.
But if, because of
desire and attachment to the life of this world and its transient and
baseless pleasures, he is cut off from the world above and has no
familiarity with or love for God and the pure beings of His Presence,
then he becomes afflicted with painful torment and eternal adversity.
It is true that a man's good and evil acts in this world are transient
and disappear, but the forms of these good and evil acts become
established in the soul of man and accompany him everywhere. They are
the capital of his future life, be it sweet or bitter.
These
affirmations can be drawn from the following verses: God says, "Lo!
unto thy Lord is the (absolute) return" (Qur'an, XCVI, 8).
And He says,
"Beware all things reach Allah at last?" (Qur'an XLII, 53); and "The
(absolute) command on that day is Allah's" (Qur'an, LXXXII, 19).
Also
in the account of the address made to certain members of the human race
on the Day of Judgment He says, "(And unto the evildoer it is said):
Thou wast in heedlessness of this.
Now We have removed from thee thy
covering, and piercing is thy sight this day" (Qur'an, L, 22).
Concerning the hermeneutic interpretation (ta'wil) of the Holy Qur'an
(the truth from which the Holy Qur'an originates) God says, "Await they
aught save the fulfillment [ta'wil] thereof?
On the day when the
fulfillment thereof cometh, those who were before forgetful thereof
will say: The messengers of our Lord did bring the Truth! Have we any
intercessors that they may intercede for wise than we used to act?
They
have lost their souls, and that which they devised hath failed them"
(Qur'an, VII, 53).
He says, "On that day Allah will pay them their due,
and they will know that Allah, He is the Manifest Truth" (Qur'an, XXIV,
25).
And, "Thou verily, O man, art working toward thy Lord a work which
thou wilt meet (in His presence)" (Qur'an, LXXXIV, 6).
Also, "Whoso
looketh forward to the meeting with Allah (let him know that) Allah's
reckoning is surely nigh..." (Qur'an, XXIX, 5).
And, "And whoever
hopeth for the meeting with his Lord, let him do righteous work, and
make none sharer of the worship due unto his Lord" (Qur'an, XVIII,
111).
And, "But ah! thou soul at peace! Return unto thy Lord, content
in His good pleasure! Enter thou among My bondmen! Enter thou My
Garden!" (Qur'an, LXXXIX, 27-30).
Also He says, "But when the great
disaster cometh, The Day when man will call to mind his (whole)
endeavor, And hell will stand forth visible to him who seeth, Then, as
for him who rebelled, And chose the life of the world, Lo! Hell will be
his home.
But as for him who feared to stand before his Lord and
restrained his soul from lust, Lo! the Garden will be his home"
(Qur'an, LXXIX, 34-41).
Concerning the identity of the reward of actions God says, "(Then it will be said): O ye who disbelieve! Make no excuses for yourselves this day. Ye are only being paid for what ye used to do" (Qur'an, LXVI, 7).
The Continuity and Succession of Creation
This
world of creation which we observe does not possess an endless and
perpetual life. A day will come when the life of this world and its
inhabitants will come to an end as confirmed by the Holy Qur'an.
God
says, "We created not the heavens and the earth and all that is between
them save with truth, and for a term appointed." (Qur'an, XLVI, 3).
One could ask if before the creation of this world and present race of
humanity there had been another world and another human race; or, if
after the life of this world and its inhabitants terminates, as the
Holy Qur'an declares that it will, another world and humanity will be
created.
The direct response to these questions cannot be found in the
Holy Qur'an. There, one can only discover allusions to the continuity
and succession of creation.
But in the traditions(rewayat) of the Imams
of the Household of the Prophet transmitted to us it is asserted that
creation is not limited to this visible world. Many worlds have existed
in the past and will exist in the future.
The sixth Imam has said,
"Perhaps you think God has not created humanity other than you. No! I
swear to God that He has created thousands upon thousands of mankind
and you are the last among the."
And the fifth Imam has said, "God,
the Exalted, since creating the world has created seven kinds none of
whom were of the race of Adam. He created them from the surface of the
earth and set each being one after another with its kind upon the
earth.
Then He created Adam, the father of mankind, and brought his
children into being from him." And also the sixth Imam has said, "Do
not think that after passing away of the affair of this world and the
Day of Judgment and the placing of the virtuous in heaven and the evil
in hell there will no longer be anyone to worship God.
No, never! Rather, again God will create servants without the marriage of the male and the female to know His Oneness and to worship Him."
KNOWLEDGE OF THE IMAM(IMAMOLOGY)
The Meaning of Imam
Imam
or leader is the title given to a person who takes the lead in a
community in a particular social movement or political ideology or
scientific or religious form of thought. Naturally, because of his
relation to the people he leads, he must conform his actions to their
capabilities in both important and secondary matters.
As is clear
from the preceding chapters, the sacred religion of Islam takes into
consideration and gives directives concerning all aspects of the life
of all men. It investigates human life from the spiritual point of view
and guides man accordingly, and it intervenes on the plane of formal
and material existence from the point of view of the life of the
individual.
In the same way it intervenes on the plane of social life
and its regulation (i.e., on the plane of government).
Thus the
imamate and religious leadership in Islam may be studied from three
different perspectives: from the perspective of Islamic government, of
Islamic sciences and injunctions, and of leadership and innovative
guidance in the spiritual life.
Shi'ism believes that since Islamic
society is in dire need of guidance in each of these three aspects, the
person who occupies the function of giving that guidance and is the
leader of the community in these areas of religious concern must be
appointed by God and the Prophet.
Naturally, the Prophet himself was also appointed by Divine Command.
The Imamate and Succession
Man
through his God-given nature realizes without any doubt that no
organized society, such as a country or city or village or tribe or
even a household consisting of a few human beings, can continue to
subsist without a leader and ruler who puts the wheel of the society in
motion and whose will govern each individual's will and induces the
members of that society to perform their social duty.
Without such a
ruler the parts of this society become dispersed in a short time and
disorder and confusion reign. Therefore, he who is the ruler and
governor of a society, whether it be great or small, if he is
interested in his own position and the continued existence of his
society, will appoint a successor for himself if he is to be absent
from his function temporarily or permanently.
He will never abandon the
domain of his rule and be oblivious to its existence or annihilation.
The head of a household who bids farewell to his house and household
for a journey of a few days or months will appoint one of the members
of the household or someone else as his successor and will leave the
affairs of the house in his hands.
The head of an institution, or the
principle of a school, or the owner of a shop, if he is to be absent
even for a few hours will select someone to represent him.
In the
same way Islam is a religion which according to the text of the Holy
Book and the Sunnah is established upon the basis of the primordial
nature of things. It is a religion concerned with social life, as has
been seen by every observer near and far.
The special attention God and
the Prophet have given to the social nature of this religion can never
be denied or neglected. It is an incomparable feature of Islam.
The
Holy Prophet was never oblivious to the problem of the formation of
social groupings wherever the influence of Islam penetrated. Whenever a
city or village fell into Muslim hands he would, in the shortest time
possible, appoint a governor or ruler in whose hands he would leave the
affairs of the Muslims.
In very important military expeditions ordered for the Holy War (jihad), he would appoint more than one leader and commander, in order of succession. In the war of Mu'tah he even appointed four leaders, so that if the first were to be killed the second would be recognized as the head and his command accepted and if the second were to be killed, then the third, and so on.
The
Prophet also displayed great interest in the problem of succession and
never failed to appoint a successor when necessary.
Whenever he
leftMedina he would appoint a governor in his own place. Even when he
migrated from Mecca to Medina and there was as yet no idea as to what
would occur, in order to have his personal affairs managed in Mecca for
those few days and to give back to people what had been entrusted to
him, he appointed Ali - may peace be upon him - as his successor.
In
the same way, after his death Ali was his successor in matters
concerning his debts and personal affairs.
The Shi'ites claim that for
this very reason it is not conceivable that the Prophet should have
died without appointing someone as his successor, without having
selected a guide and leader to direct the affairs of Muslims and to
turn the wheels of Islamic society.
Man's primordial nature does
not doubt the importance and value of the fact that the creation of a
society depends on a set of common regulations and customs which are
accepted in practice by the majority of the groups in that society, and
that the existence and continuation of that society depend upon a just
government which agrees to carry out these regulations completely.
Any
one who possesses intelligence does not neglect of forget this fact. At
the same time one can not doubt neither the breadth, and detailed
nature of the Islamic Shari'ah, nor the importance and value the
Prophet considered it to possess, so that he made many sacrifices for
its application and preservation.
Nor can one debate about the mental
genius, perfection of intelligence, perspicacity of vision or power of
deliberation of the Prophet (beside the fact that this is affirmed
through revelation and prophecy).
According to established
traditions in both Sunni and Shi'ite collections of hadith (in the
chapter on temptations and seditions and others) transmitted from the
Prophet, the Prophet foretold seditions and tribulations which would
entangle Islamic society after his death, and the forms of corruption
which would penetrate the body of Islam, and later worldly rulers who
would sacrifice this pure religion for their own impure, unscrupulous
ends.
How is it possible that the Prophet should not neglect to speak
of the details of events and trials of years or even thousands of years
after him, and yet would neglect the condition that had to be brought
into being most urgently after his death?
Or that he should be
negligent and consider as unimportant a duty that is on the one hand
simple and evident and on the other significant to such a degree?
How
could he concern himself with the most natural and common acts such as
eating, drinking and sleeping and give hundreds of commands concerning
them, yet remain completely silent about this important problem and not
appoint someone in his own place?
Even if we accepted the
hypothesis (which Shi'ism does not accept) that the appointment of the
ruler of Islamic society is given by the Shari'ah to the people
themselves, still it would be necessary for the Prophet to give an
explanation concerning this matter.
He would have had to give the
necessary instructions to the community so that they would be aware of
the problem upon which the existence and growth of Islamic society and
the life of religious symbols and observances depended and relied.
Yet
there is no trace of such a prophetic explanation or religious
instruction. If there had been such a thing, those who succeeded the
Prophet and held the reins of power in their hands would not have
opposed it. Actually, the first caliph transferred the caliphate to the
second caliph by bequest.
The second caliph chose the third caliph
through a six-man council of which he was himself determined and
ordered. Mu'awiyah forced Imam Hasan to make peace and in this way
carried away the caliphate. After this even the caliphate was converted
into a hereditary monarchy.
Gradually many religious observances
identified with the early years of Islamic rule (such as holy war,
commanding what is lawful and prohibiting what is forbidden, the
establishment of boundaries for human action) were weakened or even
disappeared from the political life of the community, nullifying in
this domain the efforts of the Prophet of Islam.
Shi'ism has
studied and investigated the primordial nature of man and the
continuous tradition of wisdom that has survived among men.
It has
penetrated into the principal purpose of Islam which is to revivify
man's primordial nature, and has investigated such things as the
methods used by the Prophet in guiding the community; the troubles
which entangled Islam and the Muslims and which led to division and
separation; and the short life of the Muslim governments of the early
centuries, which were characterized by negligence and lack of strict
religious principles.
As a result of these studies Shi'ism has reached
the conclusion that there are sufficient traditional texts left by the
Prophet to indicate the procedure for determining the Imam and
successor of the Prophet.
This conclusion is supported by Qur'anic
verses and hadiths of Ghadir, Safinah, Thaqalayn, Haqq, Manzilah,
Da'wat-i 'ashirah-i aqrabin and others.
But of course these hadiths,
most of which are also accepted by Sunnism, have not been understood in
the same way by Shi'ism and Sunnism.
Otherwise the whole question of
succession would not have arisen. Whereas these hadiths appear to
Shi'ites as a clear indication of the Prophet's intention in the
question of succession, they have been interpreted by Sunnis in quite
another way so as to leave this question open and unanswered.
To
prove the caliphate of Ali ibn Abi Talib, Shi'ites have had recourse to
Quranic verses, including the following: "Your friend [wali] can be
only Allah; and His messenger and those who believe, who establish
worship and pay the poor-due, and bow down (in prayer) [or, and this
reading is accepted by 'Allamah Tabataba'i: "....pay the poor-due while
bowing down (in prayer)"]" (Qur'an, V, 55).
Shi'ite and Sunni
commentators alike agree that this verse was revealed concerning Ali
ibn Abi Talib, and many Shi'ite and Sunni traditions exist supporting
this view.
Abu Dharr Ghifari has said: "One day we prayed the noontime
prayers with the Prophet.
A person in need asked people to help but no
one gave him anything, 'Oh God! Be witness that in the mosque of the
Prophet no one gave me anything.' Ali ibn Abi Talib was in the position
of genuflection in the prayers.
He pointed with his finger to the
person, who took his ring and left. The Prophet, who was observing the
scene, raised his head toward heaven and said: 'Oh God! My brother
Moses said to Thee, "Expand my breast and make easy my tasks and make
my tongue eloquent so that they will comprehend my words, and make my
brother, Harun, my help and vizier" [cf. Qur'an, XXVIII, 35].
Oh God! I
am also Thy prophet; expand my breast and make easy my tasks and make
Ali my vizier and helper.'" Abu Dharr says, "The words of the Prophet
had not as yet finished when the verse [cited above] was revealed."
Another verse which the Shi'ites consider as proof of the caliphate of
Ali is this: "This day are those who disbelieve in despair of (even
harming) your religions; so fear them not, fear Me! This day have I
perfected your religion for you and completed My favour unto you, and
have chosen for you as religion AL-ISLAM" (Qur'an, V, 3).
The obvious
meaning of this verse is that before that particular day the infidels
had hopes that a day would come when Islam would die out, but God
through the actualization of a particular even made them lose forever
the hope that Islam would be destroyed.
This very event was the cause
of the strength and perfection of Islam and of necessity could not be a
minor occasion such as the promulgation of one of the injunctions of
religion. Rather, it was a matter of such importance that the
continuation of Islam depended upon it.
This verse seems to be
related to another verse which comes toward the end of the same
chapter: "O Messenger! Make known that which hath been revealed unto
thee from thy Lord, for if thou do it not, thou will not have conveyed
His message. Allah will protect thee from mankind." (Qur'an, V, 67).
This verse indicates that God commanded a mission of great concern and
importance to the Prophet which if not accomplished would endanger the
basis of Islam and prophecy. But the matter was so important that the
Prophet feared opposition and interference and in awaiting suitable
circumstances delayed it, until there came a definite and urgent order
from God to execute this command without delay and not to fear anyone.
This matter also was not just a particular religious injunction in the
ordinary sense, for to preach one or several religious injunctions is
not so vital that if a single one of them were not preached it would
cause the destruction of Islam.
Nor did the Prophet of Islam fear
anyone in preaching the injunctions and laws of religion.
These
indications and witnesses add weight to the Shi'ite traditions which
assert that these verses were revealed at Ghadir Khumm and concern the
spiritual investiture (walayat) of Ali ibn Abi Talib.
Moreover, many
Shi'ite and Sunni commentators have confirmed this point.
Abu Sa'id
Khudari says: "The Prophet in Ghadir Khumm invited people toward Ali
and took his arm and lifted it so high that the white spot in the
armpit of the Prophet of God could be seen.
Then this verse was
revealed: 'This day have I perfected your religion for you and
completed My favor unto you, and have chosen for you as religion
AL-ISLAM.' Then the Prophet said, 'God is great(Allahu akbar) that
religion has become perfected and that God's bounty has been completed,
His satisfaction attained and the walayat of Ali achieved.'
Then he
added, 'For whomever I am the authority and guide Ali is also his guide
and authority. Oh God! Be friendly with the friends of Ali and the
enemy of his enemies. Whoever helps him, help him, and whoever leaves
him, leave him.'"
In summary we can say that the enemies of Islam
who did everything possible to destroy it, when they lost all hope of
achieving this end, were left with only one hope.
They thought that
since the protector of Islam was the Prophet, after his death Islam
would be left without a guide and leader and would thus definitely
perish.
But in Ghadir Khumm their wishes were brought to nought and the
Prophet presented Ali as the guide and leader of Islam to the people.
After Ali this heavy and necessary duty of guide and leader was left
upon the shoulders of his family.
Some of the hadiths pertaining to
Ghadir Khumm, the investiture of Ali, and the significance of the
Household of the Prophet are cited here:
Hadith-i ghadir: The
Prophet of Islam upon returning from the farewell pilgrimage stopped in
Ghadir Khumm, assembled the Muslims and after delivering a sermon,
chose Ali as the leader and guide of Muslims.
Bara' says: "I was in
the company of the Prophet during the farewell pilgrimage. When we
reached Ghadir Khumm he ordered that place to be cleaned. Then he took
Ali's hand and placed him on his right side.
Then he said, 'Am I the
authority whom you obey?' They answered, 'We obey your directions.'
Then he said, 'For whomever I am his master(maula) and the authority
whom he obeys, Ali will be his master.
Oh God! Be friendly with the friends of Ali and enemy of the enemies of Ali.' Then Umar ibn al-Khattab said to Ali, 'May this position be pleasing to you, for now you are my master and the master of all the believers.'"
Hadith-i safinah: Ibn 'Abbas says, "The Prophet said, 'My household is like the ship of Noah ; whoever embarks upon it will be saved and whoever turns away from it will be drowned.'"
Hadith-i thaqalayn: Zayd ibn
Arqam has recounted that the Prophet said, "It seems that God has
called me unto Himself and I must obey His call. But I leave two great
and precious things among you: the Book of God and My Household.
Be careful as to how you behave toward them. These two will never be separated from each other until they encounter me at Kawthar (in paradise)." Hadith-i thaqalayn is one of the most strongly established hadiths, and has been transmitted through many chains of transmission and in different versions.
Shi'ites and Sunnis agree concerning its
authenticity.
Several important points can be deduced from this hadith
and its like:
(1) In the same way that the Holy Qur'an will remain
until the Day of Judgment, the progeny of the Holy Prophet will also
remain. No period of time will be without the existence of the figure
which Shi'ism calls the Imam, the real leader and guide of men.
(2)
Through these two great trusts(amanat), the Prophet has provided for
all the religious and intellectual needs of the Muslims. He has
introduced his Household to Muslims as authorities in knowledge and has
pronounced their words and deeds to be worthy and authoritative.
(3)
One must not separate the Holy Quran from the Household of the Prophet.
No Muslim has a right to reject the "sciences" of the members of the
Household of the Prophet and remove himself from under their direction
and guidance.
(4) If people obey the members of the Household and
follow their words they will never be led astray. God will always be
with them.
(5) The answers to the intellectual and religious needs of
men are to be found in the hands of the members of the Household of the
Prophet. Whoever follows them will not fall into error and will reach
true felicity; that is, the members of the Household are free from
error and sin and are inerrant.
From this it can be concluded that by
"Members of the Household" and "progeny" is not meant all the
descendants and relatives of the Prophet. Rather, specific individuals
are meant who are perfect in the religious sciences and are protected
against error and sin so that they are qualified to guide and lead men.
For Shi'ism these individuals consist of Ali ibn Abi Talib and his
eleven descendants who were chosen to the imamate one after another.
This interpretation is also confirmed by the Shi'ite traditions.
For
example, Ibn 'Abbas has said, "I said to the Prophet, 'Who are your
descendants whose love is obligatory [upon Muslims]?'
He said, 'Ali, Fatimah, Hasan and Husayn.'" Jabir has transmitted that the Prophet has said, "God placed the children of all prophets in their 'backbone' but placed my children in the backbone of Ali."
Hadith-i haqq : Umm Salmah has said, "I heard from the Prophet of God who said, 'Ali is with the Truth (haqq) and the Quran, and the Truth and the Quran are also with Ali, and they will be inseparable until they come upon me at Kawthar.'"
Hadith-i manzilah : Sa'd ibn Waqqas has said, "The Prophet of God said to Ali, 'Are you not satisfied to be to me what Harun was to Moses except that after me there will not be another prophet?'"
Hadith-i da'wat-i 'ashirah : The Prophet invited his
relatives for luncheon and after the meal told them, "I know of no one
who has brought to his people better things than I have brought to you.
God has commanded me to invite you to draw toward Him. Who is there who
will assist me in this matter and be my brother and inheritor (wasi)
and vicegerent (khalifah) among you?" All remained silent, but Ali, who
was the youngest of all, exclaimed, "I shall be your deputy and aide."
Then the Prophet put his arms around him and said, "He is my brother,
inheritor and vicegerent. You must obey him." Then the group began to
depart laughing and telling Abu Talib, "Muhammad has ordered you to
obey your son."
Hudhayfah has said, "The Prophet of God said, 'If
you make Ali my vicegerent and successor - which I do not think you
will do - you will find him a perspicacious guide who will direct you
toward the straight path!"
Ibn Marduyah has said that the Prophet
said, "Whoever wishes that his life and death be like mine and that he
enter paradise should after me love Ali and follow my household, for
they are my descendants and have been created from my clay.
My knowledge and understanding have been bestowed upon them. Therefore woe unto those who deny their virtues. My intercession [on the Day of Judgment] will never include them."
Affirmation of the Previous Section
Much
of the argument of Shi'ism concerning the succession to the Prophet
rests on the belief that during the last days of his illness the
Prophet in the presence of some of his companions asked for some paper
and ink so that something could be written which, if obeyed by the
Muslims, would prevent them from going astray.
Some of those present
considered the Prophet to be too ill to be able to dictate anything and
said, "The Book of God is sufficient for us."
There was so much clamor
raised over this matter that the Holy Prophet told those present to
leave, for in the presence of a prophet there should not be any noise
or clamor.
Considering what has been said above about hadiths
concerning succession and the events that followed upon the death of
the Prophet, especially the fact that Ali was not consulted in the
question of selecting the Prophet's successor, Shi'ites conclude that
the Holy Prophet had wanted to dictate his definitive views about the
person who was to succeed him but was not able to do so.
The
purpose of the utterances of some of those present seems to have been
to cause confusion and prevent this final decision from being clearly
announced.
Their interruption of the Holy Prophet's discourse does not
seem to be what it appears outwardly, that is concern with the
possibility that the Prophet might utter incongruous words due to the
intensity of his illness.
For, first of all, throughout his illness the
Holy Prophet was not heard to have uttered any meaningless or
incongruous words and no such things has been transmitted concerning
him. Moreover, according to the principles of Islam the Prophet is
protected by God from uttering delirious or senseless words and is
inerrant.
Secondly, if the words mentioned by some of those present
on that occasion before the Prophet were meant to be of a serious
nature there would have been no place for the next phrase, "The Book of
God is sufficient for us."
In order to prove that the Prophet might
utter incongruous words under unusual circumstances the reason of his
serious illness would have been used rather than the claim that with
the Qur'an there was no need of the Prophet's words.
For it could not
be hidden from any Muslim that the very text of the Book of God
considers the obedience to the Holy Prophet to be obligatory and his
words to be in a sense like the Word of God.
According to the text of
the Holy Qur'an, Muslims must obey the injunctions of both God and the
Prophet.
Thirdly, an incident involving illness occurred during the
last days of the life of the first caliph, who in his last will and
testament chose the second caliph as his successor.
When Uthman was
writing the will according to the order of the caliph, the caliph
fainted. Yet the second caliph did not repeat the words that had been
uttered in the case of the Prophet according to the hadith of "Pen and
Paper."
This fact has been confirmed in a hadith related by Ibn Abbas.
And it has been accounted of the second caliph that he said, "Ali
deserved the caliphate but the Quraysh would not have been able to bear
his caliphate, for had he become caliph he would have forced the people
to accept the pure truth and follow the right path.
Under his caliphate
they would not have been able to transgress the boundaries of justice
and thus would have sought to engage in war with him."
Obviously
according to religious principles one must force him who has deviated
from the truth to follow the truth; one must not abandon the truth for
the sake of one who has abandoned it.
When the first caliph was
informed that some of the Muslim tribes had refused to pay religious
tax, he ordered war and said, "If they do not give me the tithes which
they gave to the Prophet, I shall fight against them."
Eventually by
this saying he meant most of all that truth and justice must be revived
at all costs.
Surely the problem of the legitimate caliphate was more important and significant than tithes, and Shi'ism believes that the same principle applied by the first caliph to this matter should have been applied by the whole early community to the problem of succession to the Holy Prophet.
The Imamate and Its Role in the Exposition of the Divine Sciences
In
the discussion of prophecy it was mentioned that, according to the
immutable and necessary law of general guidance, each created species
is guided through the path of genesis and generation toward the
perfection and felicity of its own kind.
The human species is not an
exception to this general law. Man must be guided through the very
"instinct" of seeking reality and through thought concerning his life
in society in such a way that this well-being in this world and the
next is guaranteed.
In other words, to attain human happiness and
perfection, man must accept a series of doctrines and practical duties
and base his life upon them.
It has, moreover, already been said
that the way to understand that total program for life called religion
is not through reason but through revelation and prophecy, which
manifests itself in certain pure beings among mankind who are called
prophets.
It is the prophets who receive from God, through revelation,
the knowledge of men's duties and obligations as human beings and who
make these known to men, so that by fulfilling them men may attain
felicity.
It is evident that in the same way that this reasoning
proves the necessity for knowledge to guide men to the attainment of
happiness and perfection, it also proves the necessity for the
existence of individuals who preserve intact the total body of that
knowledge and who instruct the people when necessary.
Just as the
Divine Compassion necessitates the existence of persons who come to
know the duties of mankind through revelation, so also it makes it
necessary that these human duties and actions of celestial origin
remain forever preserved in the world and as the need arises be
presented and explained to mankind.
In other words, there must always
be individuals who preserve God's religion and expound it when
necessary.
The person who bears the duty of guarding and preserving
the Divine message after it is revealed and is chosen by God for this
function is called the Imam, in the same way that the person who bears
the prophetic spirit and has the function of receiving Divine
injunctions and laws from God is called the Prophet. It is possible for
the imamate and prophecy (nubuwwat) either to be joined in one person
or to be separate.
The proof given previously to demonstrate the inerrancy of prophets, also demonstrates the inerrancy of the Imams, for God must preserve His true religion intact and in such a state that it can be propagated among mankind at all times. And this is not possible without inerrancy, without Divine protection against error.
The Difference between Prophet and Imam
The
previous argument about the reception of Divine injunctions and laws by
the prophets only proves the basis of prophecy, namely the receiving of
Divine injunctions. The argument does not prove the persistence and
continuity of prophecy, even though the very fact that these prophetic
injunctions have been preserved naturally raises the idea of
persistence and continuity.
That is why it is not necessary for a
prophet (nabi) always to be present among mankind, but the existence of
the Imam, who is the guardian of Divine religion, is on the contrary a
continuous necessity for human society.
Human society can never be
without the figure whom Shi'ism calls the Imam whether or not he is
recognized and known. God, the Most Exalted, has said in His Book: "So
if these disbelieve in it, We have already entrusted it to a people
[i.e., the Imams] who do not disbelieve in it" (Qur'an, VI, 90).
As
mentioned above, the functions of prophecy and imamate may be joined in
one person who is then appointed to the functions of both prophet and
Imam, or to both the reception of the Divine law and its preservation
and explanation.
And sometimes they can be separated, such as in
periods during which there is no prophet living but when there is a
true Imam living among men.
It is obvious that the number of God's
prophets is limited and the prophets have not been present in every
period and age.
It is also of significance to not that in God's
Book some of the prophets have been introduced as Imams such as the
Prophet Abraham, about whom is said, "And (remember) when his Lord
tried Abraham with (His) commands, and he fulfilled them, He said: Lo!
I have appointed thee a leader [imam] for mankind. (Abraham) said: And
of my offspring (will there be leaders)?
He said: My covenant includeth not wrongdoers" (Qur'an, II, 124). And God has also said, "And We made them chiefs [imams] who guide by Our command..." (Qur'an, XXI, 73).
The Imamate and Its Role in the Esoteric Dimension of Religion
In
the same way that the Imam is the guide and leader of men in their
external actions so does he possess the function of inward and esoteric
leadership and guidance. He is the guide of the caravan of humanity
which is moving inwardly and esoterically toward God.
In order to
elucidate this truth it is necessary to turn to the following two
introductory comments.
First of all, without any doubt, according to
Islam as well as other Divine religions the sole means of attaining
real and eternal happiness or misery, felicity or wretchedness, is by
means of good or evil actions which man comes to recognize through the
instruction of Divine religion as well as through his own primordial
and God-given nature and intelligence.
Second, through the means of
revelation and prophecy God has praised or condemned man's actions
according to the language of human beings and the society in which they
live.
He has promised those who do good and obey and accept the
teachings of revelation a happy eternal life in which are fulfilled all
desires that accord with human perfection.
And to the evildoers and in
iniquitous He has given warning of a bitter perpetual life in which is
experienced every form of misery and disappointment.
Without any
doubt God, who stands in every way above all that we can imagine, does
not, as we do, possess "thought" moulded by a particular social
structure. The relations of master and servant, ruler and ruled,
command and prohibition, reward and punishment, do not exist outside
our social life.
The Divine Order is the system of creation itself, in
which the existence and appearance of everything is related solely to
its creation by God according toreal relations and to that alone.
Furthermore, as has been mentioned in the Holy Qur'an and prophetic
hadith, religion contains truths and verities above the common
comprehension of man, which God has revealed to us in a language we can
comprehend on the level of our understanding.
It can thus be
concluded that there is a real relationship between good and evil
actions and the kind of life that is prepared for man in eternity, a
relation that determines the happiness or misery of the future life
according to the Divine Will.
Or in simpler words it can be said that
each good or evil action brings into being a real effect within the
soul of man which determines the character of his future life. Whether
he understands it or not, man is like a child who is being trained.
From the instructions of the teacher, the child hears nothing but do's
and don'ts but does not understand the meaning of the actions he
performs. Yet, when he grows up, as a result of virtuous mental and
spiritual habits attained inwardly during the period of training, he is
able to have a happy social life.
If, however, he refuses to submit to
the instructions of the teacher he will undergo nothing but misery and
unhappiness. Or he is like a sick person who, when in the care of a
physician, takes medicine, food and special exercises as directed by
the physician and who has no other duty than to obey the instructions
of his doctor.
The result of this submission to his orders is the
creation of harmony in his constitution which is the source of health
as well as every form of physical enjoyment and pleasure.
To summarize,
we can say the within his outward life man possesses an inner life, a
spiritual life, which is related to his deeds and actions and develops
in relation to them, and that his happiness or misery in the hereafter
is completely dependent upon this inner life.
The Holy Qur'an also
confirms this explanation. In many verses it affirms the existence of
another life and another spirit for the virtuous and the faithful, a
life higher than this life and a spirit more illuminated than the
spirit of man as we know it here and now. It asserts that man's acts
have inner effects upon his soul that remain always with him. In
prophetic sayings there are also many references to this point.
For
example, in the Hadith-i mi'raj (hadith of the nocturnal ascension) God
addresses the Prophet in these words: "He who wishes to act according
to My satisfaction must possess three qualities: he must exhibit
thankfulness that is not mixed with ignorance, a remembrance upon which
the dust of forgetfulness will not settle, and a love in which he does
not prefer the love of creatures rather than My love.
If he loves Me, I
love him; I will open the eye of his heart with the sight of My majesty
and will not hide from him the elites of My creatures. I will confide
in him in the darkness of the night and the light of the day until
conversation and intercourse with creatures terminates.
I will make him
hear My word and the word of My angels. I will reveal to him the secret
which I have veiled from My creatures. I will dress him with the robe
of modesty until the creatures feel ashamed before him.
He will walk
upon the earth having been forgiven. I will make his heart possess
consciousness and vision and I will not hide from him anything
inParadise or in the Fire. I will make known to him whatever people
experience on the Day of Judgment in the way of terror and calamity."
Abu 'Abdallah - may peace be upon him - has recounted that the Prophet
of God - may peace and blessings be upon him - received Harithah ibn
Malik ibn al-Nu'man and asked him, "How art thou, Oh Harithah?"
He
said, "Oh Prophet of God, I live as a true believer." The Prophet of
God said to him, "Each thing possesses its own truth. What is the truth
of thy word?" He said, "Oh Prophet of God! My soul has turned away from
the world.
My nights are spent in a state of awareness and my days in a
state of thirst. It seems as if I am gazing at the Throne of my Lord
and the account has been settled, and as if I am gazing at the people
of paradise who are visiting each other in heaven, and as if I hear the
cry of the people of hell in the fire."
Then the Prophet of God said,
"This is a servant whose heart God has illuminated."
It must also
be remembered that often one of us guides another in a good or evil
matter without himself carrying out his own words.
In the case of the
prophets and Imams, however, whose guidance and leadership is through
Divine Command, such a situation never occurs. They themselves practice
the religion whose leadership they have undertaken.
The spiritual life
toward which they guide mankind is their own spiritual life, for God
will not place the guidance of others in someone's hand unless He has
guided him Himself.
Special Divine guidance can never be violated or
infringed upon.
The following conclusions can be reached from this discussion:
(1) In each religious community the prophets and Imams are the foremost
in the perfection and realization of the spiritual and religious life
they preach, for they must and do practice their own teachings and
participate in the spiritual life they profess.
(2) Since they are first among men and the leaders and guides of the community, they are the most virtuous and perfect of men.
(3) The person upon whose shoulders lies the responsibility for the guidance of a community through Divine Command, in the same way that he is the guide of man's external life and acts, is also the guide for the spiritual life, and the inner dimension of human life and religious practice depends upon his guidance.
The Imams and Leaders of Islam
The
previous discussions lead us to the conclusion that in Islam, after the
death of the Holy Prophet, there has continuously existed and will
continue to exist within the Islamic community (ummah), an Imam (a
leader chosen by God).
Numerous prophetic hadiths have been transmitted
in Shi'ism concerning the description of the Imams, their number, the
fact that they are all of the Quraysh and of the Household of the
Prophet, and the fact that the promised Mahdi is among them and the
last of them.
Also, there are definitive words of the Prophet
concerning the imamate of Ali and his being the first Imam and also
definitive utterances of the Prophet and Ali concerning the imamate of
the Second Imam.
In the same way, Imams before have left definitive
statements concerning the imamate of those who were to come after them.
According to these utterances contained in Twelve-Imam Shi'ite sources
the Imams are twelve in number and their holy names are as follows:
(1)
'Ali ibn Abi Talib;
(2) Hasan ibn 'Ali;
(3) Husayn ibn 'Ali;
(4) 'Ali
ibn Husayn;
(5) Muhammad ibn 'Ali;
(6) Ja'far ibn Muhammad;
(7) Musa
ibn Ja'far;
(8) 'Ali ibn Musa;
(9) Muhammad ibn 'Ali;
(10) 'Ali ibn
Muhammad;
(11) Hasan ibn 'Ali; and
(12) the Mahdi.
